Environmental and Social Burdens of Electric Vehicle Battery Lifecycles
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) are widely promoted as a sustainable alternative due to their ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the environmental and social impacts of EV battery production are often overlooked. This paper examines the hidden environmental costs of EV batteries using a lifecycle assessment approach, covering raw material extraction, manufacturing, transportation, usage, recycling, and disposal. Special emphasis is placed on lithium and cobalt mining, including the issue of child labor. Environmental justice concerns, health risks, and policy challenges are also discussed, along with mitigation strategies and future technological alternatives for sustainable electric mobility.
Manuscript received: 08 Feb 2026 | Revised: 24 Apr 2026 | Accepted: 11 May 2026 | Published: 31 Jul 2026
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
References
V.G. Pol, "Lithium-Ion Battery Critical Materials Sustainability," ACS Energy Letters, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 2553-2558, 2025.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.5c01018
A.S. Andrade-Arias, G. Kabir and S.A. Khan, "From mine to motor: A literature review on environmental assessments of electric vehicle battery supply chains," Cambridge Prisms: Energy Transitions, vol. 1, 2025.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/etr.2025.10008
R. Feng, W. Guo, C. Zhang, Y. Nie and J. Li, "Comparative Study on Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicle Batteries from a Regional and Energy Perspective," Batteries, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 23, 2025.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11010023
J. Rochlin, "Obstacles to mining formalization in Colombia," Resources Policy, vol. 73, pp. 102135, 2021.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102135
Q. Huang, Y. Sun, Q. Guo, Q. Li, Y. Zhang, X. Li and L. Wang, "Social life cycle assessment and its methodological challenges: A bibliometric and content analysis," Journal of Industrial Ecology, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 264-278, 2025.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13605
J.B. Dunn, L. Gaines, J.C. Kelly, C. James and K.G. Gallagher, "The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling's role in its reduction," Energy & Environmental Science, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 158-168, 2015.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EE03029J
A.C. Schomberg, S. Bringezu and M. Flörke, "Extended life cycle assessment reveals the spatially-explicit water scarcity footprint of a lithium-ion battery storage," Communications Earth & Environment, vol. 2, no. 1, 2021.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-020-00080-9
M. Clemente, P. Maharjan, M. Salazar and T. Hofman, "Meta-analysis of life cycle assessments for Li-ion batteries production emissions," The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, vol. 30, no. 12, pp. 2625-2641, 2025.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-025-02541-9
N. Cao, Y. Zhang, L. Du, X. Gu and M. Wu, "Sustainable management strategies for spent Li-ion batteries: cascade utilization, recycling, and regeneration," Energy Storage Materials, vol. 84, pp. 104823, 2026.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2025.104823
R. Jiang, C. Wu, W. Feng, K. You, J. Liu, G. Zhou, L. Liu and H. Cheng, "Impact of electric vehicle battery recycling on reducing raw material demand and battery life-cycle carbon emissions in China," Scientific Reports, vol. 15, no. 1, 2025.